Effects of Violent TV Programming on Adolescent Behavior Essay

Violent behavior is a central theme in many kinds of media. Television and movies depict violent behaviors as acceptable ways of communicating and resolving problematic social situations (Strasburger & Donnerstein, 1999). During the twentieth century, Americans were introduced to a wide variety of media technology, including televisions, digital computers, video cassette players and handheld electronic machines (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). Although television is but one of the many media venues, it represents the predominant medium to which very young children are exposed. The 1972 report to the Surgeon General found that 96% of American homes have one or more television sets and the average home set is on more than six hours a day and frequent viewing usually begins at about age 3 and remains relatively high until about age 12 (1972, pp. 1-2). Kaiser’s study (1999) found that children spend up to 40 hours per week in front of the television. For children under the age of 7, Wright et al. (1994) found that media exposure averaged just over four hours per day. Other studies have concurred that the television has become a predominant medium of experience for the child. In a 1990 position paper, the NAEYC stated that the trend toward increased depiction of violence in the media jeopardizes the healthy development of significant numbers of our nation’s children (1990, p. 18). The viewing experience is highly complex, subjective, and dependent upon the child’s level of cognitive and emotional understanding (Wright et al. , 1994). Social scientists and policy makers have expressed concern about the potential negative impact of exposure of violence on children (Bushman & Geen, 1990). They have explored the negative impact longitudinally, both experimentally and observationally, and found that children as young as 2 and into adolescence are adversely affected by televised violence. Studies demonstrated that after viewing violent programs, the child behaved aggressively and imitated the scenes of the violent behavior in his play (Anderson & Bushman 2001). This paper explores the current state of research in this area and seeks for the relationship between television watching and childhood violence. Television and Violence The most recent large-scale longitudinal study was initiated in 1994 by researchers at the Universities of California, Texas, Wisconsin, and North Carolina. The National Television Violence Study (NTVS) was deemed the largest scientific study of television violence ever undertaken (Federman, 1998). NTVS involved a three-year effort (1994-1997) to review violence in televised programming. It examined three areas of concern: televised programming context, factors that either positively or negatively alter the risk of viewing violence, and the interactions between programming and the viewers. In this study, nearly 10,000 hours of televised cross-channel programming were examined using five major groupings: broadcast networks, independent broadcast, public broadcast, basic cable, and premium cable. The authors found that 61% of programs contain violence. By the third year of the study, there was more violent interaction observed across the programs analyzed. Specific to the younger child, the study found that children’s programs, as a genre, contained the greatest share (50%) of all high-risk violent interactions, as well as the highest ratio of interactions per hour (. 75) (Federman, Vol. 3, 1998, p. 175). Child-oriented cable programs such as those on Cartoon Network, Disney, or Nickelodeon contained the most high risk violent interactions (27%), compared to general-entertainment basic cable (24%), independent broadcast (19%), and premium cable (17%) (Federman, 1998). Early morning viewing, which is primarily child-focused cartoon programming, has at least one high-risk violent presentation every hour. In one week, a child is exposed to at least 20 violent behavior depictions, and in one year over 1,000, if he watches three hours of early morning television a day (Federman, 1997-1998). The authors also found that over the course of three years there was little change in the overall number of violent programs. However, there was a significant increase (8%) in the portrayals of violent incidents per program and children’s programs continued to depict violence in animated stories (Federman, Vol. 2, 1998). In many of these violent interactions, the main character did not experience any appropriate consequences for aggressive behavior. One of the goals of the NTVS was to encourage more responsible television programming and viewing. The study emphasized the message that understanding the impact of viewed televised violence offers an opportunity to significantly reduce the risks to society that are posed by exposure to televised violence. Young Child’s Experience of Violence The American media is rife with portrayals of justified violence (Federman, 1997-1998). The good guy beats up the bad guy, and laughter or expressions of glee follow hurtful acts. This conveys the message that aggression is an acceptable way to solve problems and express frustration. Children of all ages watch television and videos on a daily basis and are exposed to acts of violence that potentially shape their way of thinking and behaving (Minow & Lamay, 1995, p. 36) Cartoons feature patterns that are more likely to encourage aggression in children, especially if they are under the age of seven (Boyatzis et al. , 1987). Aggressive behaviors, often portrayed in the genre of animation aimed at children, are confusing for the young child. The stories presented as humorous, with laughter accompanying actions that are hostile and aggressive. This may lead to a decrease in his potential fear of danger and may also foster desensitization to harmful situations (Federman, 1997-1998). Significant results revealed that televised violence is changing the behavior of children (Federman, 1997-1998). Individuals of all ages learn through observation. Three important factors affect the impact of learning through modeling. First, the more engaging and attractive the model is, the more the viewer will stay attentive; the less appealing the character is, the more likely the viewer will be distracted or ignore the experience. The second compelling factor is the repeated exposure of the modeling stimuli. As a result of repeated exposure, modeling stimuli eventually produces enduring, retrievable images (Bandura, 1977, p. 25). The third factor, the complexity of the observed experience, affects the rate of observational learning. It is based on the observer’s capacity to process information. However, the young child may imitate without knowing what his behavior means. Bandura suggests that immediate imitation does not require much in the way of cognitive functioning because the behavioral reproduction is externally guided by the model’s action (Bandura, 1977, p. 27). Bandura’s research throughout the 1960s and 1970s with the inflatable Bobo doll demonstrated a relationship between viewing aggressive acts of behavior and performing them. He found that children would more often choose the Bobo doll to punch after viewing a televised violent program than reading a book or choosing a quiet game. Although Bandura’s work on modeling has been challenged over the years, there has been strong support. Later researchers have expanded Bandura’s initial studies, finding that the younger the child is, the more likely he will use imitation rather than rational thinking to choose an appropriate, non-violent way of relating. Eron et al. (1972) reported a strong relationship between viewed violence at age 8 and aggressive behavior. Canton and Sparks (1984) found that preschool children have a greater fear response than older children and react accordingly to what they see. Singer et al. (1999) concluded that there was a significant association linking violent exposure with children’s self-reported violent behaviors. Boyatzis et al. ‘s 1995 study of 52 elementary school children with a mean age 7 years, 9 months, showed how children reacted to watching an episode of The Power Rangers. They found that the child’s aggressive tendency and lack of fear was immediate and markedly greater following an exposure to but a single episode of The Power Rangers. (Boyatzis et al. , 1995, p. 53). Animated programming such as The Power Rangers, Ninja Turtles characterizes the hero as attractive, strong, and powerful. These characters use violence to solve problematic situations and rescue the helpless victim. The NTVS found that a preschooler who watches an average of 2 hours a day of such content will 43 be exposed to at least 10 hazardous portrayals a week, and over 500 in a year (Federman, Vol. 3, 1998, p. 163). Other studies have documented the relationship between exposure to violence and aggressive thought and action. For example, Josephson (1987) presented two television excerpts, one violent and one non-violent, to 396 third-grade boys from 13 schools. She hypothesized that there was a relationship between viewed violence and aggressive play behavior. Significance was found in increased aggressive behavior in boys who played a game of hockey after watching a violent program. Boys who scored high on characteristic levels of aggressiveness used more aggressive behaviors in their hockey game if they were in the groups that viewed violence. Furthermore, she found that the boys who watched the violent tape and were not given verbal cues about appropriateness of the behavior played more aggressively after the tape than either the boys who watched a non-violent tape, or boys who watched a violent tape but were given verbal cues that commented on appropriateness of behavior(Josephson, 1987). Children are being presented with messages that invite aggressive ways of relating to resolve situations and handle life events (Groves 2002). Current televised shows use cartoons, as well as live actors, to display forms of aggression as a means of relating to others and solving problems. A significant shift in televised programming, though, has occurred with the portrayal of aggressive behavior through more real life characterization, as illustrated in shows like The Power Rangers. The visual experience of aggressive behavior has become more like real life to the child because instead of viewing animated characters using aggressive behavior, the child can now watch individuals similar to himself transmogrify into violent machines (Boyatzis et al. , 1995). In this mechanical state, the portrayed behavior is violent and aggressive with the child’s intention of solving a problem. Witnessing these aggressive acts of behavior gives the child a script to construct his social interactions. Since young children create and store behavior that they see, viewing violence becomes a potential way of relating to an experience. Whether the televised programming is in the form of cartoons or real life, social scripts are constructed by the child and are then employed in day-to-day experiences (Groves 2002). Mitigating the Influence of Violent Television Even though there have been numerous studies documenting the impact of televised violence on the behavior of children, the television industry has been reluctant to change violent programming (Singer et al. , 1999). As a result, recent research has focused on how to mitigate the experience of what the child sees rather than waiting for the industry to change what is presented to the public. The child uses internal processes, relying on cognitive and emotional capacities, to actively understand what has been experienced. In his efforts to understand these experiences, the child will find a way to concretize the experience into either emotional or behavioral responses. Younger children need the assistance of another to understand what they experience because they are unable to adjust their viewing and comprehension activities in response to learning instructions (Field & Anderson, 1985, p. 91). Collins, Sobol, and Westby (1981) studied 47 children with a mean age of 7. 8 years. Children who watched a program in the presence of an adult who provided ongoing commentary showed improved comprehension of the plot and the witnessed experiences. Without adult participation, the younger children remembered only the aggressive behaviors without remembering the link to either the motive or the consequence. Huesmann et al. (1983) sampled 169 first- and third-grade children over a two-year period. The focus of the study was to mitigate the relation between aggression and television violence viewing in children through an intervention that altered the children’s attitudes about aggression and violent shows (Huesmann et al. , 1983, p. 899). They found a significant change in how the child responded to violence when the experimenter commented on the violent behavior. More children responded with appropriate answers when they were directly asked, â€Å"what are the bad things that could happen when a child imitates the aggressive behavior of a character? † St. Peters et al. (1991) found that the role of co-viewing by the parent with the child is beneficial. This study was conducted over a two-year period and involved the participation of 271 children, ages 3 to 5 years, and their parents. Parental comments about the televised material helped the children understand what they saw. The parents’ comments differentiated acceptable and non-acceptable behavior for the child. Young children need this clarification and guidance because they have relatively few internal structures to guide them in their behavior (St. Peters et al. , 1991). Kubey (1996) noted that network and cable programming are unsuitable for some children, especially the young child. No amount of adult commenting will completely mitigate what a child experiences. Monitoring and limiting a child’s choice of television shows to reduce the exposure to violent behaviors is similar to monitoring a child’s choice of foods to ensure health and nutrition. Children are victims to the effects of exposure to violence. Parents are critically important as a resource for the child in his attempt to understand the world. Grover (2002) noted that the child who has been exposed to violence responds more favorably to a nurturing, sensitive and caring adult relationship. The more parents know about their child’s changing capacities to understand the world, the better able they are to respond empathically and appropriately to the child (Garbarino, 1992). However, it is essential, as a parent is a primary resource to buffer, explain and clarify life experiences for the child that are beyond the child’s capacity to understand ((Minow & Lamay, 1995). The study by Singer et al. (1980) found that parents influenced their children’s perceptions of the importance of television by the type and amount of television viewing they had. Collins et al. (1981) found that parental commentary helped children understand the implicit program content. The longitudinal study by St. Peters et al. (1991) of 3- and 5-year-olds and their families’ viewing patterns found that parents’ viewing choices play a role in determining a child’s exposure to television programs. Conclusion Young children often copy the violent actions that they have witnessed. Bandura’s work on modeling in the field of social learning has been significant in conceptualizing the relationship between viewing violence and subsequent behaviors. The solution for ameliorating the impact of televised violence focuses on change in parental attitudes as well as profound changes in the entertainment industry. Changing parental attitudes and behavior toward media violence is more feasible than changing the way the entertainment industry portrays violence. Educating parents about the child’s cognitive and emotional developmental capacities has been recommended widely as one solution to lessen the potential impact of media violence. References Anderson, C, & Bushman, B. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. American Psychological Society, 12, pp. 353-359. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Boyatzis, C. J. , Matillo, G. M. , & Nesbitt, K. M. (1995). Effects of â€Å"The Mighty Morphin Power Rangers† on children’s aggression with peers. Child Study Journal, 25(1), pp. 45-55.

‘Lord of the Flies’ by William Golding Essay

Compare and Contrast the characters of Ralph and Jack and comment on their roles in the novel? ‘Lord of the Flies’ is an allegory, a simple adventure story that also has deeper meaning. Golding uses the characters of Ralph and Jack to illustrate the battle between right and wrong within society. Both have dominant characters but use methods that contrast in many ways. They have different expectations of others and of the island itself, and have opposing priorities and objectives. It is necessary to examine their different character traits in detail, in order to understand how these influence the development of life on the island. At Jack’s first appearance in the novel, we recognise him as a natural leader. Jack is the head of the choir and a strict disciplinarian. â€Å"Choir! Stand still!† However, throughout this encounter, he maintains control and dignity. Jack has complete confidence in his decisions. He cannot be accused of worrying people by being indecisive as he always has clear and definite opinions. â€Å"I ought to be chief †¦ I can sing C sharp†. However, his black cloak and red hair are hints of a dark and fiery side to his character. These were the main colours of the Nazi Party flag. Gradually we see Jack changing from an authoritarian leader into something much more ruthless, casting him as a type of Hitler. In contrast, Ralph first appears fun-loving and carefree, sounding like a typical public school boy, â€Å"wacco – wizard – golly†. He is excited at the prospect of an adventure at the beginning, not considering the implications of being alone and coping on the island, standing on his head when he does not know what to do. â€Å"Forced at last to believe in the reality of the island, laughed delightedly again and stood on his head†. Ralph is an instinctive person who has a tendency to rush into things before considering the consequences. This shows his immaturity. Ralph is therefore quite childish and naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve at times. Later in the novel Ralph looks back with regret at â€Å"that first enthusiastic exploration as though it were part of a brighter childhood†. Despite this, Ralph shows himself to be a strong character who often displays clear authority during the novel. He desires order, calling assemblies and using the conch, the symbol of democracy and civilisation, â€Å"Ralph felt a kind of reverence for the conch.† This shows Ralph’s belief in democracy. He tries to treat people as equals, including characters like Piggy. He cares for others and is compassionate, especially to the â€Å"littluns†. Ralph also shows his assertiveness when dealing with Piggy, â€Å"Better Piggy than Fatty,† he said at last, with the directness of genuine leadership.† He is also courageous confronting the tribe when they steal Piggy’s glasses calling Jack â€Å"a beast and a swine and a bloody, bloody thief†. Ralph’s physical appearance also favours him. He is tall, agile, a good swimmer with â€Å"a mildness about his mouth and eyes that proclaim no devil.† This is a clear indication of Ralph’s character. However, he does not convey as much confidence as Jack. Ralph can appear the weaker of the two by depending on Piggy for advice. This is probably because he has had no experience of leadership and therefore lacks confidence. Simon suggests Ralph needs to be firmer â€Å"you’re chief, you tell ’em off† However Ralph could also be seen as open-minded. He is always prepared to listen to both sides of an argument without forcing his own opinions. Ralph has an optimistic character, never questioning that rescue will come. Ralph earns the respect of the boys and gains their trust. Jack rules through fear. It is a sign of Ralph’s good judgement that he delegates responsibility and trusts Piggy, having respect for his advice. Although like everyone else he becomes more savage in order to survive, unlike Jack he does not take this to extremes. Ralph becomes aware of his filthy appearance â€Å"with a little fall of his heart†. After Simon’s death he says, â€Å"I’m frightened of us.† In contrast, Jack becomes a good keen hunter and relishes this role. Increasingly he begins to adopt animal-like methods â€Å"down like a sprinter† as if he is ready to sniff out the scent. Jack can be very determined, and will persevere. At first, Jack is unable to kill the pig, but he shows promise of completing the task in hand â€Å"†¦I shall! Next time!† Soon his obsession with killing the pig takes over and he can no longer keep his basic instincts under control. There are hints that Jack finds it harder to keep a clear head. Jack â€Å"†¦frowned in an effort to attain clarity,† showing that he was beginning to lose concentration and control. Jack forgets about home and has no wish to get off the island. Soon, he has no priorities, other than to hunt and kill. Jack becomes increasingly tyrannical towards everyone. The longer the boys are on the island the worse he becomes. At first Jack targets most of his aggression at Piggy. This seems to be a coping mechanism when things are going wrong. Jack uses Piggy to vent his frustration physically. He seems to feel his only way of control is through violence. Jack shows himself to be a bully, and respect is not given to Jack voluntarily, he demands it. The reason why people obey him is through terror. His followers become known as â€Å"the Tribe† symbolising their loss of individual identity. As Jack’s dictatorial style develops he shows himself to be very narrow-minded and expects people never to question him. He will not listen to anyone’s opinion. â€Å"Bollocks to the rules!† the phrase Jack uses to dismiss democracy. From the beginning, Jack is consistently rude to Piggy. He is a very judgmental person, and he takes Piggy at face value. Jack does not look for the best or show any sign of accepting people for who they are. He has no consideration for people’s feelings. Eventually any suggestions given to Jack are taken as a threat. Jack shows no remorse. A good example of this is the incident concerning the fire. The fire is the symbol of safety and of destruction – of power and of hope. The Hunters whom Jack leads can be viewed in the same way. A symbol of safety when obtaining food, but of destruction when blindly killing. By neglecting the fire, Jack shows himself to be unreliable, forsaking the group in favour of his own interests and priorities. He does not admit to being at fault or apologise, but retaliates with aggression. It is easy to understand why Jack is viewed as the obvious leader. He came to the island with experience of holding a responsible position. Ralph, however, has a more spontaneous approach. He is less rigid and seems able to adapt to the changing circumstances. Throughout their time on the island we see Jack and Ralph changing due to their environment and the pressures which they face. Often Ralph rises to the challenge with fairness and clear thinking, but the weight of responsibility causes extreme stress. â€Å"A strange thing happened in his head. Something flittered there in front of his mind like a bat’s wing, obscuring his idea.† Jack however becomes increasingly violent and degenerates into an overpowering dictator. ‘Lord of the Flies’ was written by Golding to highlight some of the relevant issues of the day. Published in 1954, there was a strong worldwide movement against dictators and fascism following the Second World War. The division between Ralph and Jack highlights the gulf between good and evil, â€Å"two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate†. Jack’s role symbolises fallen mankind, degenerating as the novel progresses into ultimate sin and savagery. Ralph also becomes aware of the â€Å"darkness of man’s heart†. Ralph’s failure to maintain democracy symbolises mankind’s failure to deal with our own sinful natures. â€Å"Ralph wept for the end of innocence, the darkness of man’s heart and the fall through the air of the true, wise friend called Piggy.†   

Internationalization of Financial Markets Essay - 1

Internationalization of Financial Markets - Essay Example People adopt all these strategies to reduce the risk and allocate the resources in a strategic manner. Â  During the last 20 years, internationalization of financial markets has developed at a very swift pace. This took place due to the amalgamation of goods market leading to the presence of multinational corporations. Imports and exports volumes have increased largely leading to increasing in international transactions. All these elements have increased their presence internationally but the growth of internationalization of financial markets has gone beyond the adjustment of trade. Along with this growth, banks’ existence has also increased internationally with many new branches in new countries to satisfy the needs of customers working for multinational organizations (Horne, 1990). Â  The reason that banks have different packages for different countries is that people have different needs and trends. Some countries might have the trend of saving more and some might have investment trend depending on the current situation of the country. If there is inflation in the country, demand is high but supply is very low because the purchasing power of consumers has increased but output has not increased at the same pace. The government will increase the interest rate so that instead of spending the money people save the money and do not demand much (Welch & Liostarinen, 1993). During this period, foreigners will start saving their money in those countries’ banks. Similarly, when there is deflation in any country government will decrease the rate of interest so that people invest more to stimulate the production and prices. Â  Moreover, different countries confront different kind of natural calamities and other destructions. Insurance companies have great significance in these kinds of countries, they collect premium from people periodically and invest this money in different projects.

Tesla Motor Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tesla Motor - Research Paper Example Tesla Motors is leading in manufacturing electric car batteries as well as electric vehicle sports activities cars that can run on the highways and utilize battery of lithium-ion and the foremost electric car that may voyage more than 200 miles per charge (Howard Web). Americans who are environmental conscious buy many cars made by Tesla Motors. There are however various ways in which global warming may be minimized such as reducing amount of fuel burnt in the air by decreasing amount of car use and using energy efficient vehicles. Moreover, Tesla’s beautiful cars have faced concerns over potential fire risks. This makes customers question the company’s quality and safety especially in North America where many incidences of fire have been experienced. However, the company’s technological features have ensured that the people are warned before they are hurt by fire. Despite the achievements that the company has gained from its technology, Tesla still makes losses and does not meet its sales target. Strong demand for Model S has never been recorded as expected and the production is not sufficient because of the supply constraint the company undergoes. Production of Model S is very high and the supply of battery sale faces some constraints. Ohnsman explains that battery supply issue has hugely affected the company negatively thus tarnishing the company that is always committed (Web).

8 Forms of Waste in real Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

8 Forms of Waste in real Life - Essay Example This ensured that there was minimum time wasted by any of them waiting for the next step in production (Sarkar 76). The chefs were further required to assemble all their working tools before commencing their work to avoid unnecessary movement of materials and people during the process. The school further ensured that the required amount of baking flour was used. There had been concerns from the school management that the catering department had looked too much into the quality of snacks provided at the school canteen and failing to check on the quantity. As a result, the department was required to change its system so that unnecessary time was not spent in baking. This helped to scrap off extra processing and consequently increase on quantity. The last step taken by the school was ensuring that all the chefs assigned to preparing snacks adhered to their work so as to ensure that there were no non-utilized workers (Sarkar

Sustainability at Millipore Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sustainability at Millipore - Essay Example ents utilized as a part of fluid stream procedures to sift through or concentrate particulates, atoms, microorganisms, infections, and different materials. Clients utilized Millipores channels for sanitizing, cell reaping, and detaching mixes from complex blends. For instance, the refreshment business utilized Millipores channels to expel microorganisms and yeast from wine, lager, squeeze, and water. Millipore likewise delivered a variety of lab hardware, including recognition devices. The questions to be discussed in light of the company’s efforts to achieve sustainability are as below. The manufacturing process or any production process needs some inputs (raw materials). The raw materials undergo a certain chain of process or multiple chain processes before the final product is achieved. These inputs are resources that nature provides like air, water, stones, etc. Therefore, manufacturing processes consume the naturally available resources. During the production process, other substances are produced in the form of waste. The waste materials could be in gaseous, liquid or solid state. These waste materials are chemicals that are harmful to the environment. For instance, greenhouse gasses and other harmful materials that are harmful to the microorganisms living in water and on land. Overutilization of the natural resources beyond the replenishing capacity of nature is the consequence of most company’s activities. The act can be referred to as unsustainable utilization of resources. Sustainability embraces the consumption of natural resources to meet the needs of the current generation, but at the same time conserving and restoring the same resources to meet the needs of the future generation. Sustainability can be achieved through reducing the negative impact of a company’s economic activities on the environment by engaging in activities that are socially responsible. Social responsibility enhances the company’s image and reputation, which in turn, leads

OSI Layer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

OSI Layer - Assignment Example However, other similar system programs are not included in the scope of OSI model; however they perceive an end user's typing into a Layer 1 demand (Holmes, 2011; RingofSaturn, 2011). In other words, the application layer works as an interface between users and network. Thus, it allows the users to access network operational services. In addition, this layer holds a multiplicity of required processes: (Microsoft, 2011)   5 PRESENTATION LAYER 6 The presentation layer offers a range of encoding and encryption processes that are applied to the data received from application layer. The purpose of these processes is to make sure that information received from the application layer of one system will be understandable to the application layer of another system. In addition, it works as a translator of the network since it translates the data to be accessible to the system’s application layer. ... In this scenario, the complexity and size of a network transport protocol completely depends upon the kind of service which is presented to it by the network layer. In addition, for a trustworthy network layer with virtual circuit potential, a negligible transport layer is necessary. On the other hand, if the network layer is untrustworthy and/or simply facilitates datagram transitions method, the transport protocol should encompass widespread error discovery and recovery methods.  Moreover, the transport layer is responsible for carrying out following tasks: 8 NETWORK LAYER 9 Network layer offers freedom from data transfer technology and routing concerns, masks peculiarities of data transport medium from higher layers and offers switching and routing processes to create, uphold, and end network layer links and transfer data among various users. In this scenario, the network layer is mainly responsible for controlling the processes of the subnet, and making a decision that which ph ysical path the data should be based upon, main concerns of service, and other aspects. In addition, network layer of OSI model carries out following tasks: (Fairhurst, 2001; Fairhurst, The Internetwork Protocol (IP), 2008; Microsoft, 2011) 9 DATA LINK LAYER 10 The data link layer is the place where logical data and information (for example network IP addresses) are actually interpreted into the electrical pulses that move over the physical layer. In addition, ATM, Frame Relay and DSL follow Data Link layer mechanisms. Additionally, the OSI model data link layer offers error-free communication of data frames from one node to another network node over the physical layer, permitting layers above it to suppose virtually error-free data and network